The Fifth Factor of Production (A Nobel Prize Related Idea)
The Four Factors of Production
In standard economic models, there are Four Factors of Production: (1) Land; (2) Labor, (3) Capital; and (4) Entrepreneurship. The Four Factors of Production are the essential resources used to produce goods and services in an economy:
- Land – All natural resources used to produce goods and services, such as minerals, water, forests, and land itself.
- Labor – The human effort (physical and mental) used in the creation of products and services.
- Capital – The man-made resources (like machinery, tools, buildings, and technology) used to produce other goods and services.
- Entrepreneurship – The creativity, vision, and risk-taking ability to combine the other three factors to produce goods, innovate, and drive economic growth.
A New Theory in Economics – The Fifth Factor of Production
I am proposing a new theory in economics which suggests that there is a Fifth Factor of Production which has emerged only recently. That fifth factor of production is Artificial Intelligence. I believe that Artificial Intelligence may qualify as a Fifth Factor of Production because it has some very unique characteristics that distinguishes it from the other Four Factors of Production.
- Artificial Intelligence is not Land, by definition;
- Artificial Intelligence is not Labor because, by definition, it is not human – but it has, and is, replacing a great deal of human labor;
- Artificial Intelligence would be considered by many economists to be Capital – but it is very different from other Capital as discussed below.
- Artificial Intelligence has elements of Entrepreneurship in its creativity and innovativeness – but it is not Entrepreneurship in and of itself.
How Is Artificial Intelligence Different from the Four Factors of Production?
Much has been written about Artificial Intelligence not being sentient. Being sentient means having the capacity to feel and perceive the world through your senses, experiencing sensations, emotions, and consciousness. It’s the ability to have subjective experiences, such as pain, fear, happiness, and pleasure, rather than just being a programmed response. Does this mean that Artificial Intelligence should not be considered Labor? But, in fact, it is increasingly replacing Labor in much of the world. And this trend is expected to continue.
Should Artificial Intelligence be considered Capital, as many economists would no doubt suggest? I believe Artificial Intelligence has gone beyond being considered mere Capital due to the rapid and far-reaching nature of its adoption.
In my thinking thus far, I believe that Artificial Intelligence has characteristics that could place it in both the Labor and Capital categories. It is a bridge between these categories. This would again suggest that it have a category all its own as a Fifth Factor of Production.
What Makes A Factor of Production a Factor of Production?
A Factor of Production is considered such because it is an essential input required to produce goods or services — without it, production cannot take place.
To qualify as a factor of production, something must meet these key criteria:
- It contributes directly to production – It plays a role in creating value or output.
- It is scarce and has an opportunity cost – Using it for one purpose means it can’t be used for another.
- It earns a return or reward – Each factor receives income for its use:
- Land → Rent
- Labor → Wages
- Capital → Interest
- Entrepreneurship → Profit
- It can be combined with other factors – Production usually involves multiple factors working together (e.g., land + labor + capital + entrepreneurship).
In short, a Factor of Production is any input that is necessary, limited, and productive, helping turn resources into goods and services that satisfy human wants. It can be argued that Artificial Intelligence meets these criteria.
This Proposal Is a Working Draft
This proposal is a working draft of a new theory that suggests that Artificial Intelligence is a Fifth Factor of Production. I will be undertaking new research to further study and refine this theory. Your suggestions and thoughts on this new theory are welcome. Please send them to me at pwendee@pmwassoc.com.
Note: This Idea for a Fifth Factor of Production was born in the classroom of an economics class that I teach. Please see the links below for photos of the whiteboards in the lectures where I first thought of this idea and for a subsequent lecture where I refined the idea a little further with the help of the class.
Note: We just learned this morning that the Nobel Economics Prize Committee has awarded the prize in economics to three economists whose work has explored the role of innovations and technology, particularly the role of artificial intelligence, in how economies work and grow. Having just received this announcement this morning, along with the rest of the world, I will be studying the nature of their work more closely in the coming weeks. You can click this link to see an article in the Wall Street Journal about the Nobel Economics Prize Committee’s announcement.
October 6 2025 Lecture
October 8 2025 Lecture
